Vygotski e os conceitos científicos: implicações para a educação contemporânea
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nov 14, 2019
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Vygotski, Conceitos científicos, Educação contemporânea
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A doutrina elaborada por Vygotski a propósito dos conceitos científicos, que são o conteúdo do ensino escolar, é produto direto de sua reflexão geral sobre a aprendizagem mediatizada, concebida como determinante essencial do desenvolvimento humano (ver Kozulin, no presente volume). Segundo Vygotski (1978, 1981, 1986), todos os processos mentais especificamente humanos (considerados como processos mentais superiores) passam pela mediação de ferramentas psicológicas como a linguagem, os signos e os símbolos. Foi a sociedade dos homens que inventou esses símbolos, e as crianças os adquirem no curso de sua comunicação interpessoal com os adultos e com seus pares mais experientes. Essas ferramentas, quando as crianças enfim as adquirem e as interiorizam, funcionam como mediadores de seus processos mentais superiores.
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Karpov, Y. V. . (2019). Vygotski e os conceitos científicos: implicações para a educação contemporânea. Obutchénie. Revista De Didática E Psicologia Pedagógica, 3(2), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.14393/OBv3n2.a2019-51565
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Referências
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Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1995). Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education. Available at: http://www.psy.cmu.edu/∼mm4b/misapplied.html
Arievitch, I. M., & Stetsenko, A. (2000). The quality of cultural tools and cognitive development: Gal’perin’s perspective and its implications. Human Development, 43, 69–92. https://doi.org/10.1159/000022661
Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J. (1993). Pragmatic knowledge and conceptual structure: Determinants of transfer between quantitative domains.In D. K. Detterman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction (pp. 68–98). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Biederman, I., & Shiffrar, M. (1987). Sexing day-old chicks: A case study and expert systems analysis of a difficult perceptual learning task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 640–645. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.13.4.640
Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1990). Communities of learning and thinking: or a context by any other name. Contributions to Human Development, 21, 108–126. https://doi.org/10.1159/000418984
Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1994). Guided Discovery in a community of learners. In K.McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive the oryand classroom practice (pp. 229–270). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Brown, A. L., Campione, J. C., Reeve, R. A., Ferrara, R. A., & Palincsar, A. S. (1991). Interactive learning and individual understanding: The case of reading and mathematics. In L. T. Landsman (Ed.), Culture, schooling, and psychological development (pp. 136–170). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bruer, J. T. (1993). Schools for thought: A science of learning in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Some elements of discovery. In L. S. Shulman & E. R. Keislar (Eds.), Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal (pp. 101–113). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Chang-Wells, G. L. M., & Wells, G. (1993). Dynamics of discourse: Literacy and the construction of knowledge. In E. A. Forman, N. Minick, & C. A. Stone (Eds.), Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development (pp. 58–90). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cobb, P., Wood, T., & Yackel, E. (1993). Discourse, mathematical thinking, and classroom practice. In E.A.Forman, N. Minick, & C. A. Stone (Eds.), Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development (pp. 91–120). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cobb, P., Wood, T., Yackel, E., Nicholls, J., Wheatley, G., Trigatti, B., & Perlwitz, M. Assessment of a problem-centered second grade mathematics project. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 3–29. https://doi.org/10.2307/749551
Cobb, P., Yackel, E., & Wood, T. (1992). A constructivist alternative to there presentational view of mind in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 23, 2–33. https://doi.org/10.2307/749161
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19(6), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x019006002
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1992). The Jasper experiment: An exploration of issues in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40, 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02296707
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1994). From visual word problems to learning communities: Changing conceptions of cognitive research. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp. 157–200). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Davydov, V. V. (1986). Problemy razvivayuschego obucheniya [Problems of development-generating learning]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Types of generalization in instruction. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Detterman, D. K. (1993). The case for the prosecution: Transfer as an epiphenomenon. In D. K. Detterman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Transfer on trial: Intelligence, Cognition, and Instruction (pp. 1–24). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Dewey, J. (1902).The child and the curriculum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
DiSessa, A. A. (1982). Unlearning Aristotelian physics: A study of knowledge-based learning. Cognitive Science, 6, 37–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0364-0213(82)80005-0
Elkonin, D. B. (1976). Kak uchit detei chitat [How to teach children to read]. Moscow: Znanie.
Elkonin, D. B. (1989). Izbrannye psikhologicheskie trudy [Selected psychological works]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Elkonin, D. B., & Davydov, V. V. (Eds.) (1966). Vozrastnye vozmozhnosti usvoeniya znanii [Age-dependent potentialities of acquiring knowledge]. Moscow: Prosveschenie.
Gagné, R. M. (1966). Varieties of learning and the concept of discovery. In L. S. Shulman & E.R.Keislar (Eds.), Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal (pp.135– 150). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Galperin, P. Y. (1957). Umstvennoe deistviye kak osnova formirovaniya mysli i obraza [Mental act as the basis for formation of thought and image]. Voprosy Psikhologii, 6, 58–69.
Galperin, P. Y. (1969). Stages in the development of mental acts. In M. Cole & I. Maltzman (Eds.), A handbook of contemporary Soviet psychology (pp. 34–61). New York: Basic Books.
Galperin, P. Y. (Ed.) (1977). Upravlyaemoe formirovanie psikhicheskikh protsessov [Guided formation of the mental processes]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo MGU.
Galperin, P. Y. (1985). Metody obucheniya i umstvennoe razvitie rebenka [Methods of instruction and the child’s mental development]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo MGU.
Galperin, P. Y., & Talyzina, N. F. (1961). Formation of elementary geometrical concepts and their dependence on directed participation by the pupils. In N. O’Connor (Ed.), Recent Soviet psychology (pp. 247–272). New York: Liveright. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-009575-2.50017-2
Galperin,P. Y., & Talyzina, N. F. (Eds.) (1972). Upravlenie poznavatelnoi deyatelnostyu uchaschikhsya [Guidance of cognitive activity of students]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo MGU.
Galperin, P. Y., Zaporozhets, A. V., & Elkonin, D. B. (1963). Problemyformirovaniya znanii i umenii u shkolnikov i novye metody obucheniya v shkole [The problems of formation of knowledge and skills in school-children and the new methods of instruction at school]. Voprosy Psikhologii, 5, 61–72.
Hanson, N. R. (1970). A picture theory of theory meaning. In R. G. Colodny (Ed.), The nature and function of scientific theories (pp. 233–273). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Heller, J. I., & Gordon, A. (1992). Lifelong learning. Educator, 6(1), 4–19.
Hiebert, J., & Wearne, D. (1985). A model of students’decimal computation procedures. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 175–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.1985.9648916
Hirsch, E. D. (1987). Cultural literacy. New York: Vintage Books.
Hirsch, E. D. (1988, July/August). A postscript by E. D. Hirsch. Change, 22–26.
Howe, A. C. (1996). Development of science concepts within a Vygotskian frame- work. Science Education, 80(1), 35–51.
Kozulin, A. (1995). The learning process: Vygotsky’s theory in the mirror of its interpretations. School Psychology International, 16, 117–129.
Leontiev, A. N. (1983). Ovladenie uchaschimisyan auchnymi poniatiyami kak problema pedagogiches koi psikhologii [Mastering scientific concepts by students as a problem of educational psychology].In A. N. Leontiev, Izbrannye psikhologicheskie proizvedeniya (Tom 1, pp. 324–347). Moscow: Pedagogika.
Morine, H., & Morine, G. (1973). Discovery: A challenge to teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Panofsky, C. P., John-Steiner, V., & Blackwell, P. J.(1992). The development of scientific concepts and discourse. In L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173674.012
Pantina, N. S. (1957). Formirovanie dvigatelnogo navyka pisma v zavisimosti ottipa orientirovki v zadanii [Formation of writing skills depending on the type of task orientation]. Voprosy Psikhologii, 4, 117–132.
Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Prawat, R. S. (1995). Misreading Dewey: Reform, projects, and the language game. Educational Researcher, 24(7), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x024007013
Salmina, N. G., & Sokhina, V. P. (1975). Obuchenie matematike v nachalnoi shkole [Teaching mathematics in elementary school]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Schmittau, J. (1993). Vygotskian scientific concepts: Implications for mathematics education. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 15(2, 3), 29–39.
Schoenfeld, A. H.(1985). Mathematical problem solving. NewYork: AcademicPress.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and sense making in mathematics. In P. H. Grouws (Ed.), Hand- book of research on mathematics teaching: A project of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (pp. 334–370). New York: MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741619600202
Shulman, L. S., & Keislar, E. R. (Eds.) (1966). Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Talyzina, N. F. (1981). The psychology of learning. Moscow: Progress.
Tudge, J. (1992). Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development, and peer collaboration: Implications for classroom practice. In L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 155–172). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173674.008
Venger, L. A. (Ed.) (1986). Razvitie poznavatelnykh sposobnostei v protsesse doshkolnogo vospitaniya [Development of cognitive abilities in the course of preschool education]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman (Eds.), Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4
Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J.V.Wertsch(Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 144–188). Armonk, NY: Sharpe. Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). R. W. Rieber(Ed.),The collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky.Vol.1. Problems of general psychology. New York: Plenum.
Wells, G., Chang, G. L., & Maher, A. (1990). Creating classroom communities of literate thinkers. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Cooperative learning: Theory and research (pp. 95–121). New York: Praeger.
Zaporozhets, A. V. (1986). Razvitie myshleniya [The development of thinking]. In A. V. Zaporozhets, Izbrannye psikhologicheskie trudy, Tom1(pp.200–215). Moscow: Pedagogika.
Zhurova, L. E. (1978). Obuchenie gramote v detskom sadu [Teaching reading and writing at the kindergarten]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1995). Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education. Available at: http://www.psy.cmu.edu/∼mm4b/misapplied.html
Arievitch, I. M., & Stetsenko, A. (2000). The quality of cultural tools and cognitive development: Gal’perin’s perspective and its implications. Human Development, 43, 69–92. https://doi.org/10.1159/000022661
Bassok, M., & Holyoak, K. J. (1993). Pragmatic knowledge and conceptual structure: Determinants of transfer between quantitative domains.In D. K. Detterman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction (pp. 68–98). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Biederman, I., & Shiffrar, M. (1987). Sexing day-old chicks: A case study and expert systems analysis of a difficult perceptual learning task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 640–645. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.13.4.640
Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1990). Communities of learning and thinking: or a context by any other name. Contributions to Human Development, 21, 108–126. https://doi.org/10.1159/000418984
Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1994). Guided Discovery in a community of learners. In K.McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive the oryand classroom practice (pp. 229–270). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Brown, A. L., Campione, J. C., Reeve, R. A., Ferrara, R. A., & Palincsar, A. S. (1991). Interactive learning and individual understanding: The case of reading and mathematics. In L. T. Landsman (Ed.), Culture, schooling, and psychological development (pp. 136–170). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bruer, J. T. (1993). Schools for thought: A science of learning in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Some elements of discovery. In L. S. Shulman & E. R. Keislar (Eds.), Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal (pp. 101–113). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Chang-Wells, G. L. M., & Wells, G. (1993). Dynamics of discourse: Literacy and the construction of knowledge. In E. A. Forman, N. Minick, & C. A. Stone (Eds.), Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development (pp. 58–90). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cobb, P., Wood, T., & Yackel, E. (1993). Discourse, mathematical thinking, and classroom practice. In E.A.Forman, N. Minick, & C. A. Stone (Eds.), Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development (pp. 91–120). New York: Oxford University Press.
Cobb, P., Wood, T., Yackel, E., Nicholls, J., Wheatley, G., Trigatti, B., & Perlwitz, M. Assessment of a problem-centered second grade mathematics project. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22, 3–29. https://doi.org/10.2307/749551
Cobb, P., Yackel, E., & Wood, T. (1992). A constructivist alternative to there presentational view of mind in mathematics education. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 23, 2–33. https://doi.org/10.2307/749161
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19(6), 2–10. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x019006002
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1992). The Jasper experiment: An exploration of issues in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40, 65–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02296707
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1994). From visual word problems to learning communities: Changing conceptions of cognitive research. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp. 157–200). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Davydov, V. V. (1986). Problemy razvivayuschego obucheniya [Problems of development-generating learning]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Davydov, V. V. (1990). Types of generalization in instruction. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Detterman, D. K. (1993). The case for the prosecution: Transfer as an epiphenomenon. In D. K. Detterman & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Transfer on trial: Intelligence, Cognition, and Instruction (pp. 1–24). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Dewey, J. (1902).The child and the curriculum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
DiSessa, A. A. (1982). Unlearning Aristotelian physics: A study of knowledge-based learning. Cognitive Science, 6, 37–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0364-0213(82)80005-0
Elkonin, D. B. (1976). Kak uchit detei chitat [How to teach children to read]. Moscow: Znanie.
Elkonin, D. B. (1989). Izbrannye psikhologicheskie trudy [Selected psychological works]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Elkonin, D. B., & Davydov, V. V. (Eds.) (1966). Vozrastnye vozmozhnosti usvoeniya znanii [Age-dependent potentialities of acquiring knowledge]. Moscow: Prosveschenie.
Gagné, R. M. (1966). Varieties of learning and the concept of discovery. In L. S. Shulman & E.R.Keislar (Eds.), Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal (pp.135– 150). Chicago: Rand McNally.
Galperin, P. Y. (1957). Umstvennoe deistviye kak osnova formirovaniya mysli i obraza [Mental act as the basis for formation of thought and image]. Voprosy Psikhologii, 6, 58–69.
Galperin, P. Y. (1969). Stages in the development of mental acts. In M. Cole & I. Maltzman (Eds.), A handbook of contemporary Soviet psychology (pp. 34–61). New York: Basic Books.
Galperin, P. Y. (Ed.) (1977). Upravlyaemoe formirovanie psikhicheskikh protsessov [Guided formation of the mental processes]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo MGU.
Galperin, P. Y. (1985). Metody obucheniya i umstvennoe razvitie rebenka [Methods of instruction and the child’s mental development]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo MGU.
Galperin, P. Y., & Talyzina, N. F. (1961). Formation of elementary geometrical concepts and their dependence on directed participation by the pupils. In N. O’Connor (Ed.), Recent Soviet psychology (pp. 247–272). New York: Liveright. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-009575-2.50017-2
Galperin,P. Y., & Talyzina, N. F. (Eds.) (1972). Upravlenie poznavatelnoi deyatelnostyu uchaschikhsya [Guidance of cognitive activity of students]. Moscow: Izdatelstvo MGU.
Galperin, P. Y., Zaporozhets, A. V., & Elkonin, D. B. (1963). Problemyformirovaniya znanii i umenii u shkolnikov i novye metody obucheniya v shkole [The problems of formation of knowledge and skills in school-children and the new methods of instruction at school]. Voprosy Psikhologii, 5, 61–72.
Hanson, N. R. (1970). A picture theory of theory meaning. In R. G. Colodny (Ed.), The nature and function of scientific theories (pp. 233–273). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Heller, J. I., & Gordon, A. (1992). Lifelong learning. Educator, 6(1), 4–19.
Hiebert, J., & Wearne, D. (1985). A model of students’decimal computation procedures. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 175–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370008.1985.9648916
Hirsch, E. D. (1987). Cultural literacy. New York: Vintage Books.
Hirsch, E. D. (1988, July/August). A postscript by E. D. Hirsch. Change, 22–26.
Howe, A. C. (1996). Development of science concepts within a Vygotskian frame- work. Science Education, 80(1), 35–51.
Kozulin, A. (1995). The learning process: Vygotsky’s theory in the mirror of its interpretations. School Psychology International, 16, 117–129.
Leontiev, A. N. (1983). Ovladenie uchaschimisyan auchnymi poniatiyami kak problema pedagogiches koi psikhologii [Mastering scientific concepts by students as a problem of educational psychology].In A. N. Leontiev, Izbrannye psikhologicheskie proizvedeniya (Tom 1, pp. 324–347). Moscow: Pedagogika.
Morine, H., & Morine, G. (1973). Discovery: A challenge to teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Panofsky, C. P., John-Steiner, V., & Blackwell, P. J.(1992). The development of scientific concepts and discourse. In L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications of sociohistorical psychology. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173674.012
Pantina, N. S. (1957). Formirovanie dvigatelnogo navyka pisma v zavisimosti ottipa orientirovki v zadanii [Formation of writing skills depending on the type of task orientation]. Voprosy Psikhologii, 4, 117–132.
Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Prawat, R. S. (1995). Misreading Dewey: Reform, projects, and the language game. Educational Researcher, 24(7), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x024007013
Salmina, N. G., & Sokhina, V. P. (1975). Obuchenie matematike v nachalnoi shkole [Teaching mathematics in elementary school]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Schmittau, J. (1993). Vygotskian scientific concepts: Implications for mathematics education. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 15(2, 3), 29–39.
Schoenfeld, A. H.(1985). Mathematical problem solving. NewYork: AcademicPress.
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1992). Learning to think mathematically: Problem solving, metacognition, and sense making in mathematics. In P. H. Grouws (Ed.), Hand- book of research on mathematics teaching: A project of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (pp. 334–370). New York: MacMillan. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741619600202
Shulman, L. S., & Keislar, E. R. (Eds.) (1966). Learning by discovery: A critical appraisal. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Talyzina, N. F. (1981). The psychology of learning. Moscow: Progress.
Tudge, J. (1992). Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development, and peer collaboration: Implications for classroom practice. In L. C. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education: Instructional implications and applications of sociohistorical psychology (pp. 155–172). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139173674.008
Venger, L. A. (Ed.) (1986). Razvitie poznavatelnykh sposobnostei v protsesse doshkolnogo vospitaniya [Development of cognitive abilities in the course of preschool education]. Moscow: Pedagogika.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner & E. Souberman (Eds.), Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjf9vz4
Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J.V.Wertsch(Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 144–188). Armonk, NY: Sharpe. Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). R. W. Rieber(Ed.),The collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky.Vol.1. Problems of general psychology. New York: Plenum.
Wells, G., Chang, G. L., & Maher, A. (1990). Creating classroom communities of literate thinkers. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Cooperative learning: Theory and research (pp. 95–121). New York: Praeger.
Zaporozhets, A. V. (1986). Razvitie myshleniya [The development of thinking]. In A. V. Zaporozhets, Izbrannye psikhologicheskie trudy, Tom1(pp.200–215). Moscow: Pedagogika.
Zhurova, L. E. (1978). Obuchenie gramote v detskom sadu [Teaching reading and writing at the kindergarten]. Moscow: Pedagogika.